SIXIEME COLLOQUE DE LA SOCIETE FRANÇAISE DES ETUDES JAPONAISES
JOURNEE INTERNATIONALE
CONFERENCE DOUVERTURE
17/12/04 9h30 MATSUOKA Shinpei
Université de Tôkyô
Zeami, qui révolutionna le corps sur la scène japonaise
Lacteur de sarugaku Zeami jeta les bases du théâtre nô
à partir de divers héritages dans lart de la performance
à savoir, outre le sarugaku, le gagaku, le kemari et le dengaku
mais pour ce faire il dut imaginer et mettre au jour un corps dun nouveau
type, inédit jusqualors sur la scène. Ce corps procédait
dune intense concentration intérieure et dune certaine retenue
dans ce que le jeu laisse paraître au dehors.
Ma réflexion mamènera dabord à traiter globalement
des conditions spécifiquement théâtrales dans lesquelles
un tel corps a pu être produit, ainsi que de celles, culturelles ou politiques,
qui présidèrent à son invention.
Je me pencherai ensuite sur une série de questions plus précises,
à savoir : comment les acteurs des générations suivantes
ont-ils perpétué cette révolution du corps que Zeami avait
initié, comment lont-ils concrétisée dans leur pratique
scénique? Quels rapports le mouvement corporel ainsi redéfini
pouvait-il avoir avec celui mis en uvre dans lart du sabre? Dans
quelle mesure un même mode de corporalité médiévale
tel quon peut lobserver dans ces deux domaines a-t-elle déterminé
les arts de la scène des époques ultérieures ?
17/12/04 11h15 YOKOYAMA Tarô
Université de Tôkyô
La formation d'une théorie du corps spécifique au Japon au début de l'ère Shôwa
La question dun corps spécifiquement japonais a souvent été
débattue au cours de laprès-guerre. On le voyait tantôt
imprégner le quotidien et ses habitus, tantôt cristallisé
dans certaines pratiques bouddhisme zen, arts martiaux, arts traditionnels
de la scène (geinô) dans lapprentissage et la transmission
de leurs techniques : ou bien se repérait-il sous la forme dun
savoir théorique comme dans les traités de Zeami sur le Nô.
On le voyait aussi en passe de disparaître, dêtre englouti
par la modernisation. De ce corps japonais, je voudrais étudier,
non pas tant la réalité historique, mais son existence en tant
queffet performatif engendré par ces discours qui lont pris
en charge.
La matrice de ces discours sur le corps japonais sest forgée
à lintersection de deux séries de formations discursives:
dune part les théories philosophiques du corps élaborées
au cours de la première moitié du siècle, et plus précisément
au début de lère Shôwa autour de ce quon appelle
lécole de Kyoto et de son principal représentant Nishida
Kitarô; dautre part lensemble des savoirs qui sefforcaient
de dégager une spécificité japonaise dans le
cadre des études sur la littérature nationale et des recherches
sur lhistoire des arts traditionnels de la scène (geinô).
Comment, au sein de ce processus, fut théorisée et démontrée
une telle spécificité culturelle du corps? Cest ce que je
tâcherai de mettre en lumière à partir dune lecture
littérale des textes de Nishida, de Watsuji Tetsurô et de Noze
Asaji. Je remarquerai que les discours sur le corps japonais qui ont vu le jour
par la suite, et jusquà présent, reproduisent ou répètent,
fut-ce de façon inconsciente, cette matrice dénoncés,
dont je voudrais également penser les implications politico-culturelles.
The Male Construction of the Female Body : Kabukis Onnagata
The body has become a popular, almost obsessive topic in recent
research on gender and particularly in feminist writing. One stream of writing
has been interested in the body as a metaphor more than as a corporeal object.
The body is seen as being constructed and endlessly reconfigured
in various kinds of representation. Theatre is an obvious and powerful site
for the construction of the body both as a metaphor and as living flesh.
Kabuki, which developed out of a tradition of erotic dance (initially by women,
then young men, and finally adult men), has always maintained an open and lusty
fascination with the body. Faced with the ban on women actors in the mid-1630s,
Kabuki had to fashion its female characters out of male bodies. This fascination
with the erotic and cross-dressing was clearly in opposition to the official
governmental, Confucian-inspired, ideal view of a society in which female and
male sexuality should not be displayed in public (or even in private). In contrast,
the officially licensed theatres and pleasure quarters were segregated as urban
carnival spaces where representation and performance of the sexual body was
not only condoned by the government but also relished by male and female customers
who revelled in these fantasy worlds of play.
Andrea Dworkin, in her critical analysis of the fashioning of femininity,
comments on transvestites and make up. Her sharp (and somewhat ironic) insights
fit well the ideal image of the Kabuki onnagata female impersonator.
It is commonly and wrongly said that male transvestites through the use of
makeup and costuming caricature the women they would become, but any real knowledge
of the romantic ethos makes clear that these men have penetrated to the core
experience of being a woman, a romanticised construct. (Woman-Hating, 1974)
Cross-dressing has recently become a popular topic in Western gender studies.
I will also relate the Kabuki experience to this discourse.
The Osaka/Kyoto actor Yoshizawa Ayame I (1673-1729) is well known for his Words
of Ayame (Ayame-gusa) in the Actors Analects (Yakusha rongo), the
first treatise on the construction of femininity on the all-male Kabuki stage.
Ayame, of course, was interested in the romanticised construct of
creating a feminine heroine on the stage. The onnagatas obsession with
the bodys surfacethe hair, makeup, costume, postureis essential
to creating a believable female character, but Ayame also emphasized the need
for the actor to attempt to live within the mind of a woman. His words are a
magnificent early treatise on imaging gender. His example, both on and off the
stage, and his teachings were very influential in the construction of femininity
in the theatre and by extension into society at large. His own experience as
a male prostitute in his youth and then as a male lead before becoming an onnagata
gave him an interesting perspective on the construction of the feminine. His
model was the high-level courtesan (keisei, herself an elaborately constructed
glamorous female within the pleasure quarter), who he says should be coquettish
in outward appearance but have a chaste heart... The tension
between the erotic corporeal surface and the virtuous heart is fundamental to
the art of Kabuki. Ayame, we can argue, was aiming his portrayal of the women
characters as much at his female audience as at men. He had to convince them
of his authenticity. His comment on whether an onnagata should play male lead
roles (tachiyaku) reveals his attempts to apprehend the real situation of the
women of his time.
If one who is an onngata gets the idea that if he does not do so well in his
chosen career he can change to a tachiyaku, this in an immediate indication
that his art has turned to dust. A real woman must accept the fact that she
cannot become a man. Can you imagine a real woman being able to turn into a
man because she is unable to endure her present state? If an onnagata
thinks in this way, he used to say, he is ignorant or a womans
feelings How right the Master was!
Although Ayame himself did try his hand at tachiyaku roles late in life, he
gave it up and returned to playing only female characters.
The feminist theorist Judith Butler is well known for her writing on the construction
of sex, the body and gender. Her work generally is more
interested in the body as a metaphor within political discourse, rather than
as a physical thing. Her notion of gender performativity has remained
influential in discourse on analysis of gender and sexuality. A quotation from
her Bodies that Matter (1993), ironically (in that she is not talking about
or interested in theatrical representation) suggests some possible ways to view
onnagata femininity. Or rather, her relatively abstract words, under the gaze
of the Kabuki experience, seem to find concrete expression.
In other words, sex is an ideal construct which is forcibly materializd
through time. It is not a simple fact or condition of a body, but a process
whereby regulatory norms materialize sex and achieve this materialization
through a forcible reiteration of those norms. That this reiteration is necessary
is a sign that materialization is never quite complete, that bodies never quite
comply with the norms by which their materialization is impelled. Indeed, it
is the instabilities, the possibilities for rematerializations opened up by
this process that make one domain in which the force of regulatory law can be
turned against itself to spawn rearticulations that call into question the hegemonic
force of that very regulatory law.
But how, then, does the notion of gender performativity relate to this conception
of materialization? In the first instance, performativity must be understood
not as a singular or deliberate act, but, rather, as at the reiterative
and citational practice by which discourse produces the effects that it names..
What will, I hope, become clear in what follows is that the regulatory norms
of sex work in a performative fashion to constitute the materiality
of bodies and, more specifically, to materialize the bodys sex, to materialize
sexual difference in the service of the consolidation of the heterosexual imperative.
The focus of this paper will be on the discourse of the graphic representation
of onnagata, particularly its development and flourish with the advent of full-colour
printing from the late 1760s. I plan to analyse the visual construction of the
feminine using the case of the two actors Nakamura Tomijûrô I (1719-89),
Ayames third son, and Nakamura Tomijûrô II (1786-1855), who
was banned from performing in Osaka under an edict issued as part of the Tempo
Reforms during the 1740s.
17/12/04 14h30 Pascal GRIOLET
INALCO
Transfiguration lunivers contemporain des troupes de théâtre ambulant.
Les connaisseurs du Japon sont tentés de jeter dans les oubliettes de
l'histoire les samouraïs, les geishas, les mousmés et autres hara-kiri
ou Fuji-Yama, sous la pression des Japonais eux-mêmes qui veulent donner
d'eux une image plus moderne, considérant souvent ces mots comme de détestables
représentations « orientalistes ».. Il en va de même
pour certains concepts plus ou moins intraduisibles comme giri et ninjô.
Pourtant, ce monde existe bel et bien, mais il faut aller le chercher aux marges
de la société, dans l'univers des tabi yakusha, ces acteurs ambulants
qui circulent à travers le pays et que lon désigne de façon
plus ou moins péjorative sous le terme de dosa mawari. Le cinéaste
Ozu Yasujirô avait évoqué lun de ces acteurs dans
Ukigusa « herbes flottantes »...
Il existe en effet au Japon un théâtre populaire curieusement inconnu
du grand public comme des spécialistes du théâtre alors
qu'il véhicule des traditions tout aussi légitimes que le kabuki,
instutionnalisé depuis lère Meiji. Ces troupes sont souvent
constituées d'une dizaine ou d'une quinzaine de personnes, hommes, femmes
et enfants, vieillards et bambins. Ceux-ci restent un mois en un lieu et chaque
soir jouent une pièce différente, parfois jouent en matinée
et en soirée une pièce différente.
Les danses qu'ils présentent dans des tenues plus ou moins extravagantes,
« incroyables » sur fond de chansons de variété diffèrent
également chaque soir. Le répertoire ne repose pas sur des textes
écrits bien définis, mais le chef (ou la cheftaine) de la troupe
(dans les deux cas il est nommé zachô, le japonais ne distinguant
pas le masculin et le féminin) dicte avant la représentation les
dialogues, les gestes, les attitudes que chacun devra prendre, selon une technique
qui caractérise ce théâtre et que lon appelle kuchidate.
Le théâtre populaire japonais est un théâtre où
l'on rit bien sûr, mais aussi un lieu où les acteurs parviennent
à toucher les glandes lacrymales du public et à lui arracher des
larmes (namida shibori).
Il faut d'abord dire que ces troupes se fondent sur une structure familiale,
le chef de la troupe (zachô), son père et sa mère, ses frères
et surs, ses enfants, auxquels se sont agrégés dautres
acteurs.
C'est par ces derniers qu'il faut commencer puisqu'ils montent sur scène
à deux ou trois ans, parfois plus tôt encore, pour effectuer dans
un naturel qu'on trouverait difficilement en Europe des sortes de danses dont
la maladresse est particulièrement touchante : ils tiennent un éventail
ou un bâton sans bien s'en servir, laissant tomber l'objet dans la salle
où le public se précipite pour le ramasser. Lors de spectacles
extraordinaires que l'on appelle chibi taikai, les enfants de plusieurs troupes
montent sur scène et de la part du public qui est majoritairement féminin
et d'un certain âge leur sont offerts des sommes d'argent incroyables
: des billets de dix mille yen en éventail, des colliers de vingtaine
de billets de dix mille yen
On leur en met partout, et les billets finissent
parfois par senvoler.
Ce don d'argent qui s'exerce aussi à l'égard de n'importe quel
acteur ou actrice est un moment très intense puisque la personne qui
en fait loffrande parfois dans une enveloppe (avec un message !) ou dépose
un kimono (quaussitôt un membre de la troupe va emporter dans les
coulisses pour revenir au fond de la scène et le tendre pour quon
puisse en admirer la qualité) entre physiquement avec l'acteur en glissant
dans sa ceinture l'argent ou en l'épinglant au revers de son kimono..
Les acteurs descendent par ailleurs volontiers dans la salle (certains théâtres
maintiennent le tatami, d'autres ont adoptés les sièges)
En me fondant sur les mémoires dune actrice, Takezawa Ryûchiyo
(née en 1913) qui avait commencé sa carrière dans un genre
appelé musume kabuki et passa ensuite au kengeki qui connût son
heure de gloire dans les années vingt. À cause de la guerre et
de la mobilisation de son mari, elle deviendra cheftaine de troupe et aura parmi
ces enfants lun de ceux qui créeront la renommée soudaine
du taishû engeki dans les années 80, Umezawa Tomio. Elle raconte
: jétais devant mon miroir à me maquiller tandis que jentends
des cris, des rires, des applaudissements dans la salle, alors que le spectacle
ne devait pas encore être commencé.. Je vais voir : Tomio qui na
quun an, dans ses langes, est sur le hanamichi et prend des poses de danse
en rythme avec la salle sans musique. Lenfant avait observé depuis
les coulisses et ne faisait que reproduire ce quil avait vu.
Alors que le kabuki est un monde dhommes uniquement, dans ce théâtre,
et comme au kabuki, les hommes se déguisent souvent en femmes, ici les
femmes se déguisent aussi en hommes. Quand on croit voir un homme, cest
une femme. Quand on croit voir une femme, cest un homme.
17/12/04 15h00 Patrick DE VOS
Université de Tôkyô
Hijikata Tatsumi et les Japonais histoire et mémoire du corps dans la pensée du butô chez Hijikata Tatsumi
Pour le théâtre, pour les arts de la scène de façon
générale, les annéees soixante sont celles dun renouveau,
dune rupture avec tous les modèles précédents: texte,
jeu, musique, lumière et tous les effets de la machine scénique
se sont trouvés redéfinis, refondus de fond en comble. Mais le
principe actif, le vecteur cardinal de cette révolution tout azimuth,
cest, on le sait, ce corps privilégié dont un
Kara Jûrô sest fait le héraut aux côtés
des autres maîtres de la nouvelle avant-garde: Terayama Shûji,
Suzuki Tadashi, etc..
De toute cette génération, on connaît aussi lombre
tutélaire: Hijikata Tatsumi, qui, au-delà dune réinterrogation
du corps en scène, mit le corps lui-même à la question,
dans son existence et son statut au sein de la société japonaise
de laprès-guerre. On a tendance à décrire lévolution
du travail de Hijikata laquelle marqua les générations suivantes
et tout le développement ultérieur (très international)
de la danse quil repensa sous le nom de butô , comme un abandon
progressif des influences occidentales et un retour progressif à des
valeurs culturelles propres censément oblitérées par la
modernisation. Daucuns ont ainsi promu le corps japonais comme
la condition et la fin même du butô.
Si lon ne saurait réduire la quête de Hijikata telle
quelle semblait devoir aboutir dans le kabuki du Tôhoku (projet
ultime du chorégraphe) à une simple réappropriation
dun fonds culturel oublié du corps dansant, et moins encore à
une revendication identitaire, on ne saurait faire léconomie dune
analyse de ses rapports avec le passé et les traditions, aussi diverses
soient-elles, ni de la mise en jeu dune mémoire inscrite dans les
corps. Il sagira aussi de confronter les aspects stratégiques et
esthétiques dune réinvention de figures archaïques
du corps avec certains des concepts (notamment celui de suijakutai)
qui articulent les textes de Hijikata, aussi bien quavec les discours
qui se sont chargés dinterpréter son travail.
Digital Archiving of Intangible Cultural Properties
Recording and preserving a variety of cultural properties with digital technologies,
or Digital Archiving, has been attracting considerable attention today. Planer
materials like paintings, photographs as well as historical documents are the
most fundamental targets of digital archives. Solid materials such as archaeological
artifacts, sculptures and other art crafts are also subjected to digitizing
with solid shape measuring technique. Furthermore, intangible cultural properties
which include human body motion in dance, entertainment and hand crafts have
come to be digitized.
At the Art Research Center of the Ritsumeikan University, we are doing research
on archiving materials about dance, performing arts etc. intending preservation
and analysis of these intangible cultural properties. Prerecorded cine and video
images about traditional dance are carefully stored and preserved as a film
archive in the center. Also, some of the traditional dances have been recorded
at the center in a multi-view format by using several video cameras. Furthermore,
we have installed an optical-type motion capture system for the purpose of recording
precise three dimensional information about body motion in dance. Some tens
of ball-shaped markers are attached to the appropriate parts of a subject, and
are imaged with several high precision video cameras. The exact three dimensional
positions of markers can be obtained by the computer image processing. We have
been investigating the possibility of using this system for digitally archiving
intangible cultural properties through the measurement of various kinds of dance;
Noh play, Japanese traditional dance, contemporary dance, ballet, and some of
ethnic dance.
We notice that some problems still exist in this approach. A dancer is compelled
to perform in unusual style in the sense that the dancer wears special body
suits in order to make measurement of actual body motion. This may have a bad
influence on the performance. Also, although the costume and makeup are important
for the record of dance, we cannot record them with the current motion capture
system alone. Measuring facial expression and gaze direction are also important
but difficult. While motions of hands and fingers can be measured by attaching
small markers on the joints of fingers, it is a difficult task to measure them
together with whole body motion at the same time. Also, very high speed motion
can not be measured satisfactorily.
Digitally archiving with a motion capture system still has these kinds of problems
to be solved. However, by this system we can do the quantitative measurement
and analysis of body motion of intangible cultural properties anyway. It is
also expected to explore the essence of the performing arts by combining the
quantitative analysis with the qualitative analysis made so far.
Several dance performers of purely traditional Japanese dance including Noh-play
and Kabuki-dance were asked the impression about measuring and recoding their
own physical body motion by the system, and eventually we got comments that
this kind of objective measurement and representation with CG are of value for
the analysis of their performance, and that they want to use the system for
objectively observing the change of their performance with their aging, for
instance. We think that this suggests the significance of the motion capture
systems for the recording and preserving the intangible cultural properties.
In this report, topics on digital archiving of intangible cultural properties
by using the motion capturing technique and its application will be presented.
Topics include the quantitative analysis of body motion, a link to the dance
notation Labanotation, reproduction of dance with CG as well as the production
of multimedia teaching materials of dance.
17/12/04 16h30 AKAMA Ryô
Ritsumeikan University
Passing the tradition of performing art down to the future and new digital technology
In our project, a theme recording an intangible cultural asset by digital technology
has been tackled for 5 years. The intangible culture is various, from the traditional
entertainment which has an art expression advanced as urban culture even now,
to the traditional culture which remains in an area called an artisan, folk-customs
events, and folk performing arts, such as a craft. Especially, we have been
aimed at a Noh play or Japanese traditional dance to take advantage of the characteristic
of a university locating in Kyoto. In Japan, research of traditional entertainment
has the history fundamentally advanced by the Japanese literature researchers
who belong to a department of literature. In this case, there are mostly literary
research of a script and research of a history phenomenon is most. It is hard
to say that we have put into power on the research on production or body expression,
even though there is music research in an art college. Moreover, being tinctured
with a tendency philosophical in comparison is also a fact when daring approach
traditional entertainment by body representation theory.
However, by rapid progress of a digital technology, everyone is able to use
visual digital data easily in recent years, e.g. digital images and videos.
According to it, various media were introduced as well into the world of research
only depending on reference. The method of theatre research itself has been
changed by using the image or video with the time-line data. Furthermore, if
body motion can be recorded, it will be possible to analyze it objectively by
the digital technology in the near future, same as that of quantitative research
of a text.
Such know-how as using digital technology is beginning to be utilized for the
actual stage, and creates the stage of new production in the traditional performance.
And the performers, who had essentially been exclusive and conservative, also
have been changing their view by the new experience.
Now, when the method of new digital record begins to have new power of expression,
recorded performance begins to have value in itself. The performer who has noticed
it is beginning to consider practical use of the recorded duplicate thing. Multi-angle
specification is introduced into the standard of DVD, and it becomes easy to
use the object video by the multi-angle. Motion capture data, such as the position
information of the recorded marker and the bone data which connects it, has
got appreciated as the vivid expression of peculiarity of a performer.
Based on the above trends, we started development of the educational video software
for beginners of Japanese dance. In this case, evaluation that the difficulty
of intention understanding to the beginner by the ambiguity of an of-instruction
person's sensitivity transfer term used for exercise is cancelled by the intelligible
image. Then the first hurdle for a beginner will be cancelled.. We do not know
that the trial and error in a beginner stage is connected with progress of more
effective arts, or the efficient exercise induced for effective body expression
sure enough. These are themes to verify by practical use of education software.
Methods other than exercise of 1 to 1 can be introduced into the field of the
tradition of body expression as the auxiliary technique.
In the present condition, although development of the education software for
beginners is aimed at, if this succeeds, it will be expected whether practical
education is realizable toward a larger object. As a researcher side, we expect
that one more research domain other than reference-research is reclaimed.